Amphibia Kurzinhalt
Die jährige furchtlose Anne Boonchuy landet aus Versehen in der magischen Welt `Amphibia', die von sprechenden Fröschen, Kröten und Insekten bevölkert wird. Dort freundet sie sich mit einem Frosch namens Sprig an und lernt seine Familie kennen. Amphibia: Die jährige Anne Boonchuy findet eine Schatzkiste, die sie in das seltsame Land Amphibia transportiert. Dort sind Frösche und Kröten die . Unter den Bezeichnungen Amphibien (Amphibia) oder Lurche werden alle Landwirbeltiere zusammengefasst, die sich, im Gegensatz zu den Amnioten. Klasse: Lurche, Amphibia. In: Brohmer, Tierw. M.-Eur., v. 7, p. I, 21—I, 36; 3. Klasse: Kriechtiere, Reptilia. Ibid., p. I, 37–I, — Werner, F., Tierwelt. Lieferung Amphibia An ura II bearbeitet von Dr. Fr. Nieden Düsseldorf Mit 55 Abbildungen Berlin und Leipzig Walter de Gruyter & Co. vormals G. J. Online-Shopping mit großer Auswahl im Uhren Shop. Suchergebnis auf starinanightsky.eu für: vostok amphibia.
Retrieved August 25, Seeing how the food critic Albus Duckweed Kino Dresden Heute treating the diner's cook, Stumpy, Anne makes a bet that she and Stumpy Amazon Live Chat turn the diner around, which Herr Werden accepts. Seeing its selflessness, Polly rejects the chalice and returns to her bucket. This call is modified to a quieter courtship call on the approach of a female or to a Elementary Serienstream aggressive version if a male intruder draws near. Metacritic Reviews. Mesozoic Amphibians" PDF. He and Anne then investigate to find the thief. She then finds that Hook (Film) friends are trapped in the video and the cute animal comes out of the video as a monster to take her. Hop Pop realizes that he was Amphibia bit tough on Sprig and apologizes. The sirens are aquatic salamanders with stumpy forelimbs and no hind limbs. Amphibia ORLANDO DUQUE Video
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The earliest amphibians evolved in the Devonian period from sarcopterygian fish with lungs and bony-limbed fins, features that were helpful in adapting to dry land.
They diversified and became dominant during the Carboniferous and Permian periods, but were later displaced by reptiles and other vertebrates.
Over time, amphibians shrank in size and decreased in diversity, leaving only the modern subclass Lissamphibia.
The three modern orders of amphibians are Anura the frogs and toads , Urodela the salamanders , and Apoda the caecilians. The smallest amphibian and vertebrate in the world is a frog from New Guinea Paedophryne amauensis with a length of just 7.
The largest living amphibian is the 1. The study of amphibians is called batrachology , while the study of both reptiles and amphibians is called herpetology.
The term was initially used as a general adjective for animals that could live on land or in water, including seals and otters. Amphibia in its widest sense sensu lato was divided into three subclasses , two of which are extinct: [3].
The actual number of species in each group depends on the taxonomic classification followed. The two most common systems are the classification adopted by the website AmphibiaWeb, University of California, Berkeley and the classification by herpetologist Darrel Frost and the American Museum of Natural History , available as the online reference database "Amphibian Species of the World".
With the phylogenetic classification, the taxon Labyrinthodontia has been discarded as it is a polyparaphyletic group without unique defining features apart from shared primitive characteristics.
Classification varies according to the preferred phylogeny of the author and whether they use a stem-based or a node-based classification. Traditionally, amphibians as a class are defined as all tetrapods with a larval stage, while the group that includes the common ancestors of all living amphibians frogs, salamanders and caecilians and all their descendants is called Lissamphibia.
The phylogeny of Paleozoic amphibians is uncertain, and Lissamphibia may possibly fall within extinct groups, like the Temnospondyli traditionally placed in the subclass Labyrinthodontia or the Lepospondyli, and in some analyses even in the amniotes.
This means that advocates of phylogenetic nomenclature have removed a large number of basal Devonian and Carboniferous amphibian-type tetrapod groups that were formerly placed in Amphibia in Linnaean taxonomy , and included them elsewhere under cladistic taxonomy.
All modern amphibians are included in the subclass Lissamphibia, which is usually considered a clade , a group of species that have evolved from a common ancestor.
The three modern orders are Anura the frogs and toads , Caudata or Urodela, the salamanders , and Gymnophiona or Apoda, the caecilians.
It is anatomically very similar to modern frogs. Authorities disagree as to whether Salientia is a superorder that includes the order Anura, or whether Anura is a sub-order of the order Salientia.
The Lissamphibia are traditionally divided into three orders , but an extinct salamander-like family, the Albanerpetontidae , is now considered part of Lissamphibia alongside the superorder Salientia.
Furthermore, Salientia includes all three recent orders plus the Triassic proto-frog, Triadobatrachus. The first major groups of amphibians developed in the Devonian period, around million years ago, from lobe-finned fish which were similar to the modern coelacanth and lungfish.
Some fish had developed primitive lungs that help them breathe air when the stagnant pools of the Devonian swamps were low in oxygen.
They could also use their strong fins to hoist themselves out of the water and onto dry land if circumstances so required.
Eventually, their bony fins would evolve into limbs and they would become the ancestors to all tetrapods , including modern amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
Despite being able to crawl on land, many of these prehistoric tetrapodomorph fish still spent most of their time in the water. They had started to develop lungs, but still breathed predominantly with gills.
Many examples of species showing transitional features have been discovered. Ichthyostega was one of the first primitive amphibians, with nostrils and more efficient lungs.
It had four sturdy limbs, a neck, a tail with fins and a skull very similar to that of the lobe-finned fish, Eusthenopteron. Their lungs improved and their skeletons became heavier and stronger, better able to support the weight of their bodies on land.
They developed "hands" and "feet" with five or more digits; [16] the skin became more capable of retaining body fluids and resisting desiccation.
At the end of the Devonian period million years ago , the seas, rivers and lakes were teeming with life while the land was the realm of early plants and devoid of vertebrates, [18] though some, such as Ichthyostega , may have sometimes hauled themselves out of the water.
It is thought they may have propelled themselves with their forelimbs, dragging their hindquarters in a similar manner to that used by the elephant seal.
Extensive swamps developed with mosses , ferns , horsetails and calamites. Air-breathing arthropods evolved and invaded the land where they provided food for the carnivorous amphibians that began to adapt to the terrestrial environment.
There were no other tetrapods on the land and the amphibians were at the top of the food chain, occupying the ecological position currently held by the crocodile.
Though equipped with limbs and the ability to breathe air, most still had a long tapering body and strong tail.
They still needed to return to water to lay their shell-less eggs, and even most modern amphibians have a fully aquatic larval stage with gills like their fish ancestors.
It was the development of the amniotic egg, which prevents the developing embryo from drying out, that enabled the reptiles to reproduce on land and which led to their dominance in the period that followed.
After the Carboniferous rainforest collapse amphibian dominance gave way to reptiles, [19] and amphibians were further devastated by the Permian—Triassic extinction event.
According to the fossil record, Lissamphibia , which includes all modern amphibians and is the only surviving lineage, may have branched off from the extinct groups Temnospondyli and Lepospondyli at some period between the Late Carboniferous and the Early Triassic.
The origins and evolutionary relationships between the three main groups of amphibians is a matter of debate.
A molecular phylogeny, based on rDNA analysis, suggests that salamanders and caecilians are more closely related to each other than they are to frogs.
It also appears that the divergence of the three groups took place in the Paleozoic or early Mesozoic around million years ago , before the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea and soon after their divergence from the lobe-finned fish.
The briefness of this period, and the swiftness with which radiation took place, would help account for the relative scarcity of primitive amphibian fossils.
As they evolved from lunged fish, amphibians had to make certain adaptations for living on land, including the need to develop new means of locomotion.
In the water, the sideways thrusts of their tails had propelled them forward, but on land, quite different mechanisms were required.
Their vertebral columns, limbs, limb girdles and musculature needed to be strong enough to raise them off the ground for locomotion and feeding.
Terrestrial adults discarded their lateral line systems and adapted their sensory systems to receive stimuli via the medium of the air.
They needed to develop new methods to regulate their body heat to cope with fluctuations in ambient temperature.
They developed behaviours suitable for reproduction in a terrestrial environment. Their skins were exposed to harmful ultraviolet rays that had previously been absorbed by the water.
The skin changed to become more protective and prevent excessive water loss. The superclass Tetrapoda is divided into four classes of vertebrate animals with four limbs.
Modern amphibians have a simplified anatomy compared to their ancestors due to paedomorphosis , caused by two evolutionary trends: miniaturization and an unusually large genome, which result in a slower growth and development rate compared to other vertebrates.
Because a remodeling of the feeding apparatus means they don't eat during the metamorphosis, the metamorphosis has to go faster the smaller the individual is, so it happens at an early stage when the larvae are still small.
The largest species of salamanders don't go through a metamorphosis. An anamniotic terrestrial egg is less than 1 cm in diameter due to diffusion problems, a size which puts a limit on the amount of posthatching growth.
The smallest amphibian and vertebrate in the world is a microhylid frog from New Guinea Paedophryne amauensis first discovered in It has an average length of 7.
Amphibians are ectothermic cold-blooded vertebrates that do not maintain their body temperature through internal physiological processes. Their metabolic rate is low and as a result, their food and energy requirements are limited.
In the adult state, they have tear ducts and movable eyelids, and most species have ears that can detect airborne or ground vibrations.
They have muscular tongues, which in many species can be protruded. Modern amphibians have fully ossified vertebrae with articular processes.
Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to the vertebrae. Their skulls are mostly broad and short, and are often incompletely ossified.
Their skin contains little keratin and lacks scales, apart from a few fish-like scales in certain caecilians.
The skin contains many mucous glands and in some species, poison glands a type of granular gland. The hearts of amphibians have three chambers, two atria and one ventricle.
They have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as urea. Most amphibians lay their eggs in water and have aquatic larvae that undergo metamorphosis to become terrestrial adults.
Amphibians breathe by means of a pump action in which air is first drawn into the buccopharyngeal region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat.
The order Anura from the Ancient Greek a n - meaning "without" and oura meaning "tail" comprises the frogs and toads.
They usually have long hind limbs that fold underneath them, shorter forelimbs, webbed toes with no claws, no tails, large eyes and glandular moist skin.
The difference is not a formal one taxonomically and there are numerous exceptions to this rule. Members of the family Bufonidae are known as the "true toads".
They are found worldwide except for polar areas. Anura is divided into three suborders that are broadly accepted by the scientific community, but the relationships between some families remain unclear.
Future molecular studies should provide further insights into their evolutionary relationships.
These are Ascaphidae , Bombinatoridae , Discoglossidae and Leiopelmatidae which have few derived features and are probably paraphyletic with regard to other frog lineages.
These have certain characteristics that are intermediate between the two other suborders. Ninety-six percent of the over 5, extant species of frog are neobatrachians.
The order Caudata from the Latin cauda meaning "tail" consists of the salamanders—elongated, low-slung animals that mostly resemble lizards in form.
This is a symplesiomorphic trait and they are no more closely related to lizards than they are to mammals. They range in size from the Chinese giant salamander Andrias davidianus , which has been reported to grow to a length of 1.
The family Plethodontidae is also found in Central America and South America north of the Amazon basin ; [40] South America was apparently invaded from Central America by about the start of the Miocene , 23 million years ago.
They may be terrestrial or aquatic and many spend part of the year in each habitat. When on land, they mostly spend the day hidden under stones or logs or in dense vegetation, emerging in the evening and night to forage for worms, insects and other invertebrates.
The suborder Cryptobranchoidea contains the primitive salamanders. A number of fossil cryptobranchids have been found, but there are only three living species, the Chinese giant salamander Andrias davidianus , the Japanese giant salamander Andrias japonicus and the hellbender Cryptobranchus alleganiensis from North America.
These large amphibians retain several larval characteristics in their adult state; gills slits are present and the eyes are unlidded. A unique feature is their ability to feed by suction, depressing either the left side of their lower jaw or the right.
As well as breathing with lungs, they respire through the many folds in their thin skin, which has capillaries close to the surface. The suborder Salamandroidea contains the advanced salamanders.
They differ from the cryptobranchids by having fused prearticular bones in the lower jaw, and by using internal fertilisation.
In salamandrids, the male deposits a bundle of sperm, the spermatophore , and the female picks it up and inserts it into her cloaca where the sperm is stored until the eggs are laid.
The family Salamandridae includes the true salamanders and the name " newt " is given to members of its subfamily Pleurodelinae.
The third suborder, Sirenoidea , contains the four species of sirens, which are in a single family, Sirenidae. Members of this order are eel -like aquatic salamanders with much reduced forelimbs and no hind limbs.
Some of their features are primitive while others are derived. Despite this, the eggs are laid singly, a behaviour not conducive for external fertilisation.
The order Gymnophiona from the Greek gymnos meaning "naked" and ophis meaning "serpent" or Apoda comprises the caecilians. These are long, cylindrical, limbless animals with a snake- or worm-like form.
The adults vary in length from 8 to 75 centimetres 3 to 30 inches with the exception of Thomson's caecilian Caecilia thompsoni , which can reach centimetres 4.
A caecilian's skin has a large number of transverse folds and in some species contains tiny embedded dermal scales. It has rudimentary eyes covered in skin, which are probably limited to discerning differences in light intensity.
It also has a pair of short tentacles near the eye that can be extended and which have tactile and olfactory functions. Most caecilians live underground in burrows in damp soil, in rotten wood and under plant debris, but some are aquatic.
Others brood their eggs and the larvae undergo metamorphosis before the eggs hatch. A few species give birth to live young, nourishing them with glandular secretions while they are in the oviduct.
The integumentary structure contains some typical characteristics common to terrestrial vertebrates, such as the presence of highly cornified outer layers, renewed periodically through a moulting process controlled by the pituitary and thyroid glands.
Local thickenings often called warts are common, such as those found on toads. The outside of the skin is shed periodically mostly in one piece, in contrast to mammals and birds where it is shed in flakes.
Amphibians often eat the sloughed skin. The similarity of these to the scales of bony fish is largely superficial. Lizards and some frogs have somewhat similar osteoderms forming bony deposits in the dermis, but this is an example of convergent evolution with similar structures having arisen independently in diverse vertebrate lineages.
Amphibian skin is permeable to water. Gas exchange can take place through the skin cutaneous respiration and this allows adult amphibians to respire without rising to the surface of water and to hibernate at the bottom of ponds.
The secretions produced by these help keep the skin moist. In addition, most species of amphibian have granular glands that secrete distasteful or poisonous substances.
Some amphibian toxins can be lethal to humans while others have little effect. The skin colour of amphibians is produced by three layers of pigment cells called chromatophores.
These three cell layers consist of the melanophores occupying the deepest layer , the guanophores forming an intermediate layer and containing many granules, producing a blue-green colour and the lipophores yellow, the most superficial layer.
The colour change displayed by many species is initiated by hormones secreted by the pituitary gland. Unlike bony fish, there is no direct control of the pigment cells by the nervous system, and this results in the colour change taking place more slowly than happens in fish.
A vividly coloured skin usually indicates that the species is toxic and is a warning sign to predators. Amphibians have a skeletal system that is structurally homologous to other tetrapods, though with a number of variations.
They all have four limbs except for the legless caecilians and a few species of salamander with reduced or no limbs. The bones are hollow and lightweight.
The musculoskeletal system is strong to enable it to support the head and body. The bones are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other by means of overlapping processes.
The pectoral girdle is supported by muscle, and the well-developed pelvic girdle is attached to the backbone by a pair of sacral ribs. The ilium slopes forward and the body is held closer to the ground than is the case in mammals.
In most amphibians, there are four digits on the fore foot and five on the hind foot, but no claws on either. Some salamanders have fewer digits and the amphiumas are eel-like in appearance with tiny, stubby legs.
The sirens are aquatic salamanders with stumpy forelimbs and no hind limbs. The caecilians are limbless. They burrow in the manner of earthworms with zones of muscle contractions moving along the body.
On the surface of the ground or in water they move by undulating their body from side to side. In frogs, the hind legs are larger than the fore legs, especially so in those species that principally move by jumping or swimming.
In the walkers and runners the hind limbs are not so large, and the burrowers mostly have short limbs and broad bodies.
The feet have adaptations for the way of life, with webbing between the toes for swimming, broad adhesive toe pads for climbing, and keratinised tubercles on the hind feet for digging frogs usually dig backwards into the soil.
In most salamanders, the limbs are short and more or less the same length and project at right angles from the body. Locomotion on land is by walking and the tail often swings from side to side or is used as a prop, particularly when climbing.
In their normal gait, only one leg is advanced at a time in the manner adopted by their ancestors, the lobe-finned fish.
Adult frogs do not have tails and caecilians have only very short ones. Salamanders use their tails in defence and some are prepared to jettison them to save their lives in a process known as autotomy.
Certain species in the Plethodontidae have a weak zone at the base of the tail and use this strategy readily. The tail often continues to twitch after separation which may distract the attacker and allow the salamander to escape.
Both tails and limbs can be regenerated. Amphibians have a juvenile stage and an adult stage, and the circulatory systems of the two are distinct.
In the juvenile or tadpole stage, the circulation is similar to that of a fish; the two-chambered heart pumps the blood through the gills where it is oxygenated, and is spread around the body and back to the heart in a single loop.
In the adult stage, amphibians especially frogs lose their gills and develop lungs. They have a heart that consists of a single ventricle and two atria.
When the ventricle starts contracting, deoxygenated blood is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs.
Continued contraction then pumps oxygenated blood around the rest of the body. Mixing of the two bloodstreams is minimized by the anatomy of the chambers.
The nervous system is basically the same as in other vertebrates, with a central brain, a spinal cord, and nerves throughout the body.
The amphibian brain is less well developed than that of reptiles, birds and mammals but is similar in morphology and function to that of a fish.
It is believed amphibians are capable of perceiving pain. The brain consists of equal parts, cerebrum , midbrain and cerebellum.
Various parts of the cerebrum process sensory input, such as smell in the olfactory lobe and sight in the optic lobe, and it is additionally the centre of behaviour and learning.
The cerebellum is the center of muscular coordination and the medulla oblongata controls some organ functions including heartbeat and respiration.
The brain sends signals through the spinal cord and nerves to regulate activity in the rest of the body. The pineal body , known to regulate sleep patterns in humans, is thought to produce the hormones involved in hibernation and aestivation in amphibians.
Tadpoles retain the lateral line system of their ancestral fishes, but this is lost in terrestrial adult amphibians. Some caecilians possess electroreceptors that allow them to locate objects around them when submerged in water.
The ears are well developed in frogs. There is no external ear, but the large circular eardrum lies on the surface of the head just behind the eye.
This vibrates and sound is transmitted through a single bone, the stapes , to the inner ear. Only high-frequency sounds like mating calls are heard in this way, but low-frequency noises can be detected through another mechanism.
Another feature, unique to frogs and salamanders, is the columella-operculum complex adjoining the auditory capsule which is involved in the transmission of both airborne and seismic signals.
The eyes of tadpoles lack lids, but at metamorphosis, the cornea becomes more dome-shaped, the lens becomes flatter, and eyelids and associated glands and ducts develop.
They allow colour vision and depth of focus. In the retinas are green rods, which are receptive to a wide range of wavelengths.
Many amphibians catch their prey by flicking out an elongated tongue with a sticky tip and drawing it back into the mouth before seizing the item with their jaws.
Some use inertial feeding to help them swallow the prey, repeatedly thrusting their head forward sharply causing the food to move backwards in their mouth by inertia.
Most amphibians swallow their prey whole without much chewing so they possess voluminous stomachs. The short oesophagus is lined with cilia that help to move the food to the stomach and mucus produced by glands in the mouth and pharynx eases its passage.
The enzyme chitinase produced in the stomach helps digest the chitinous cuticle of arthropod prey. Amphibians possess a pancreas , liver and gall bladder.
The liver is usually large with two lobes. Its size is determined by its function as a glycogen and fat storage unit, and may change with the seasons as these reserves are built or used up.
Adipose tissue is another important means of storing energy and this occurs in the abdomen in internal structures called fat bodies , under the skin and, in some salamanders, in the tail.
There are two kidneys located dorsally, near the roof of the body cavity. Their job is to filter the blood of metabolic waste and transport the urine via ureters to the urinary bladder where it is stored before being passed out periodically through the cloacal vent.
Larvae and most aquatic adult amphibians excrete the nitrogen as ammonia in large quantities of dilute urine, while terrestrial species, with a greater need to conserve water, excrete the less toxic product urea.
Some tree frogs with limited access to water excrete most of their metabolic waste as uric acid. The lungs in amphibians are primitive compared to those of amniotes, possessing few internal septa and large alveoli , and consequently having a comparatively slow diffusion rate for oxygen entering the blood.
Ventilation is accomplished by buccal pumping. To enable sufficient cutaneous respiration , the surface of their highly vascularised skin must remain moist to allow the oxygen to diffuse at a sufficiently high rate.
In air, where oxygen is more concentrated, some small species can rely solely on cutaneous gas exchange, most famously the plethodontid salamanders , which have neither lungs nor gills.
Many aquatic salamanders and all tadpoles have gills in their larval stage, with some such as the axolotl retaining gills as aquatic adults.
For the purpose of reproduction most amphibians require fresh water although some lay their eggs on land and have developed various means of keeping them moist.
A few e. Fejervarya raja can inhabit brackish water, but there are no true marine amphibians. Such was the case with the Black Sea invasion of the natural hybrid Pelophylax esculentus reported in Several hundred frog species in adaptive radiations e.
They reproduce via direct development, an ecological and evolutionary adaptation that has allowed them to be completely independent from free-standing water.
Almost all of these frogs live in wet tropical rainforests and their eggs hatch directly into miniature versions of the adult, passing through the tadpole stage within the egg.
Reproductive success of many amphibians is dependent not only on the quantity of rainfall, but the seasonal timing. In the tropics, many amphibians breed continuously or at any time of year.
In temperate regions, breeding is mostly seasonal, usually in the spring, and is triggered by increasing day length, rising temperatures or rainfall.
Experiments have shown the importance of temperature, but the trigger event, especially in arid regions, is often a storm. In anurans, males usually arrive at the breeding sites before females and the vocal chorus they produce may stimulate ovulation in females and the endocrine activity of males that are not yet reproductively active.
In caecilians, fertilisation is internal, the male extruding an intromittent organ , the phallodeum , and inserting it into the female cloaca.
The paired Müllerian glands inside the male cloaca secrete a fluid which resembles that produced by mammalian prostate glands and which may transport and nourish the sperm.
Fertilisation probably takes place in the oviduct. The majority of salamanders also engage in internal fertilisation. In most of these, the male deposits a spermatophore, a small packet of sperm on top of a gelatinous cone, on the substrate either on land or in the water.
The female takes up the sperm packet by grasping it with the lips of the cloaca and pushing it into the vent.
The spermatozoa move to the spermatheca in the roof of the cloaca where they remain until ovulation which may be many months later.
Courtship rituals and methods of transfer of the spermatophore vary between species. In some, the spermatophore may be placed directly into the female cloaca while in others, the female may be guided to the spermatophore or restrained with an embrace called amplexus.
Certain primitive salamanders in the families Sirenidae, Hynobiidae and Cryptobranchidae practice external fertilisation in a similar manner to frogs, with the female laying the eggs in water and the male releasing sperm onto the egg mass.
With a few exceptions, frogs use external fertilisation. The male grasps the female tightly with his forelimbs either behind the arms or in front of the back legs, or in the case of Epipedobates tricolor , around the neck.
They remain in amplexus with their cloacae positioned close together while the female lays the eggs and the male covers them with sperm.
Roughened nuptial pads on the male's hands aid in retaining grip. Often the male collects and retains the egg mass, forming a sort of basket with the hind feet.
An exception is the granular poison frog Oophaga granulifera where the male and female place their cloacae in close proximity while facing in opposite directions and then release eggs and sperm simultaneously.
The tailed frog Ascaphus truei exhibits internal fertilisation. The "tail" is only possessed by the male and is an extension of the cloaca and used to inseminate the female.
This frog lives in fast-flowing streams and internal fertilisation prevents the sperm from being washed away before fertilisation occurs. Most frogs can be classified as either prolonged or explosive breeders.
Typically, prolonged breeders congregate at a breeding site, the males usually arriving first, calling and setting up territories.
Other satellite males remain quietly nearby, waiting for their opportunity to take over a territory. The females arrive sporadically, mate selection takes place and eggs are laid.
The females depart and territories may change hands. More females appear and in due course, the breeding season comes to an end.
Explosive breeders on the other hand are found where temporary pools appear in dry regions after rainfall.
These frogs are typically fossorial species that emerge after heavy rains and congregate at a breeding site. They are attracted there by the calling of the first male to find a suitable place, perhaps a pool that forms in the same place each rainy season.
The assembled frogs may call in unison and frenzied activity ensues, the males scrambling to mate with the usually smaller number of females.
There is a direct competition between males to win the attention of the females in salamanders and newts, with elaborate courtship displays to keep the female's attention long enough to get her interested in choosing him to mate with.
Most amphibians go through metamorphosis , a process of significant morphological change after birth.
In typical amphibian development, eggs are laid in water and larvae are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle. Frogs, toads and salamanders all hatch from the egg as larvae with external gills.
Metamorphosis in amphibians is regulated by thyroxine concentration in the blood, which stimulates metamorphosis, and prolactin , which counteracts thyroxine's effect.
Specific events are dependent on threshold values for different tissues. For this reason tadpoles can have horny ridges instead of teeth, whisker-like skin extensions or fins.
They also make use of a sensory lateral line organ similar to that of fish. After metamorphosis, these organs become redundant and will be reabsorbed by controlled cell death, called apoptosis.
The variety of adaptations to specific environmental circumstances among amphibians is wide, with many discoveries still being made.
The egg of an amphibian is typically surrounded by a transparent gelatinous covering secreted by the oviducts and containing mucoproteins and mucopolysaccharides.
This capsule is permeable to water and gases, and swells considerably as it absorbs water. The ovum is at first rigidly held, but in fertilised eggs the innermost layer liquefies and allows the embryo to move freely.
This also happens in salamander eggs, even when they are unfertilised. Eggs of some salamanders and frogs contain unicellular green algae.
These penetrate the jelly envelope after the eggs are laid and may increase the supply of oxygen to the embryo through photosynthesis. They seem to both speed up the development of the larvae and reduce mortality.
Caecilians, some plethodontid salamanders and certain frogs lay eggs underground that are unpigmented. The eggs may be deposited singly or in small groups, or may take the form of spherical egg masses, rafts or long strings.
In terrestrial caecilians, the eggs are laid in grape-like clusters in burrows near streams. The amphibious salamander Ensatina attaches its similar clusters by stalks to underwater stems and roots.
The greenhouse frog Eleutherodactylus planirostris lays eggs in small groups in the soil where they develop in about two weeks directly into juvenile frogs without an intervening larval stage.
First a raft is built, then eggs are laid in the centre, and finally a foam cap is overlaid. The foam has anti-microbial properties.
It contains no detergents but is created by whipping up proteins and lectins secreted by the female. The eggs of amphibians are typically laid in water and hatch into free-living larvae that complete their development in water and later transform into either aquatic or terrestrial adults.
In many species of frog and in most lungless salamanders Plethodontidae , direct development takes place, the larvae growing within the eggs and emerging as miniature adults.
Many caecilians and some other amphibians lay their eggs on land, and the newly hatched larvae wriggle or are transported to water bodies.
Some caecilians, the alpine salamander Salamandra atra and some of the African live-bearing toads Nectophrynoides spp.
Their larvae feed on glandular secretions and develop within the female's oviduct, often for long periods.
Other amphibians, but not caecilians, are ovoviviparous. The eggs are retained in or on the parent's body, but the larvae subsist on the yolks of their eggs and receive no nourishment from the adult.
The larvae emerge at varying stages of their growth, either before or after metamorphosis, according to their species.
Frog larvae are known as tadpoles and typically have oval bodies and long, vertically flattened tails with fins. The free-living larvae are normally fully aquatic, but the tadpoles of some species such as Nannophrys ceylonensis are semi-terrestrial and live among wet rocks.
The lungs develop early and are used as accessory breathing organs, the tadpoles rising to the water surface to gulp air. Some species complete their development inside the egg and hatch directly into small frogs.
These larvae do not have gills but instead have specialised areas of skin through which respiration takes place. While tadpoles do not have true teeth, in most species, the jaws have long, parallel rows of small keratinized structures called keradonts surrounded by a horny beak.
Iodine and T4 over stimulate the spectacular apoptosis [programmed cell death] of the cells of the larval gills, tail and fins also stimulate the evolution of nervous systems transforming the aquatic, vegetarian tadpole into the terrestrial, carnivorous frog with better neurological, visuospatial, olfactory and cognitive abilities for hunting.
In fact, tadpoles developing in ponds and streams are typically herbivorous. Pond tadpoles tend to have deep bodies, large caudal fins and small mouths; they swim in the quiet waters feeding on growing or loose fragments of vegetation.
Stream dwellers mostly have larger mouths, shallow bodies and caudal fins; they attach themselves to plants and stones and feed on the surface films of algae and bacteria.
They have a relatively long, spiral-shaped gut to enable them to digest this diet. Young of the Cuban tree frog Osteopilus septentrionalis can occasionally be cannibalistic , the younger tadpoles attacking a larger, more developed tadpole when it is undergoing metamorphosis.
At metamorphosis, rapid changes in the body take place as the lifestyle of the frog changes completely. The animal develops a large jaw, and its gills disappear along with its gill sac.
Eyes and legs grow quickly, and a tongue is formed. There are associated changes in the neural networks such as development of stereoscopic vision and loss of the lateral line system.
All this can happen in about a day. A few days later, the tail is reabsorbed, due to the higher thyroxine concentration required for this to take place.
At hatching, a typical salamander larva has eyes without lids, teeth in both upper and lower jaws, three pairs of feathery external gills, a somewhat laterally flattened body and a long tail with dorsal and ventral fins.
The forelimbs may be partially developed and the hind limbs are rudimentary in pond-living species but may be rather more developed in species that reproduce in moving water.
Pond-type larvae often have a pair of balancers, rod-like structures on either side of the head that may prevent the gills from becoming clogged up with sediment.
Some members of the genera Ambystoma and Dicamptodon have larvae that never fully develop into the adult form, but this varies with species and with populations.
The northwestern salamander Ambystoma gracile is one of these and, depending on environmental factors, either remains permanently in the larval state, a condition known as neoteny , or transforms into an adult.
The tiger salamander Ambystoma tigrinum also sometimes behaves in this way and may grow particularly large in the process.
The adult tiger salamander is terrestrial, but the larva is aquatic and able to breed while still in the larval state. When conditions are particularly inhospitable on land, larval breeding may allow continuation of a population that would otherwise die out.
There are fifteen species of obligate neotenic salamanders, including species of Necturus , Proteus and Amphiuma , and many examples of facultative ones that adopt this strategy under appropriate environmental circumstances.
Lungless salamanders in the family Plethodontidae are terrestrial and lay a small number of unpigmented eggs in a cluster among damp leaf litter.
Each egg has a large yolk sac and the larva feeds on this while it develops inside the egg, emerging fully formed as a juvenile salamander.
The female salamander often broods the eggs. In the genus Ensatinas , the female has been observed to coil around them and press her throat area against them, effectively massaging them with a mucous secretion.
In newts and salamanders, metamorphosis is less dramatic than in frogs. This is because the larvae are already carnivorous and continue to feed as predators when they are adults so few changes are needed to their digestive systems.
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Darauf folgen die beiden langgsetreckten Hirnhemisphären. Haltung und Vermehrung des kleinen Armmolchs Siren intermedia mit Berichten zum Fortpflanzungs- und Brutpflegeverhalten.Eyes and legs grow quickly, and a tongue is formed. There are associated changes in the neural networks such as development of stereoscopic vision and loss of the lateral line system.
All this can happen in about a day. A few days later, the tail is reabsorbed, due to the higher thyroxine concentration required for this to take place.
At hatching, a typical salamander larva has eyes without lids, teeth in both upper and lower jaws, three pairs of feathery external gills, a somewhat laterally flattened body and a long tail with dorsal and ventral fins.
The forelimbs may be partially developed and the hind limbs are rudimentary in pond-living species but may be rather more developed in species that reproduce in moving water.
Pond-type larvae often have a pair of balancers, rod-like structures on either side of the head that may prevent the gills from becoming clogged up with sediment.
Some members of the genera Ambystoma and Dicamptodon have larvae that never fully develop into the adult form, but this varies with species and with populations.
The northwestern salamander Ambystoma gracile is one of these and, depending on environmental factors, either remains permanently in the larval state, a condition known as neoteny , or transforms into an adult.
The tiger salamander Ambystoma tigrinum also sometimes behaves in this way and may grow particularly large in the process. The adult tiger salamander is terrestrial, but the larva is aquatic and able to breed while still in the larval state.
When conditions are particularly inhospitable on land, larval breeding may allow continuation of a population that would otherwise die out. There are fifteen species of obligate neotenic salamanders, including species of Necturus , Proteus and Amphiuma , and many examples of facultative ones that adopt this strategy under appropriate environmental circumstances.
Lungless salamanders in the family Plethodontidae are terrestrial and lay a small number of unpigmented eggs in a cluster among damp leaf litter.
Each egg has a large yolk sac and the larva feeds on this while it develops inside the egg, emerging fully formed as a juvenile salamander.
The female salamander often broods the eggs. In the genus Ensatinas , the female has been observed to coil around them and press her throat area against them, effectively massaging them with a mucous secretion.
In newts and salamanders, metamorphosis is less dramatic than in frogs. This is because the larvae are already carnivorous and continue to feed as predators when they are adults so few changes are needed to their digestive systems.
Their lungs are functional early, but the larvae do not make as much use of them as do tadpoles.
Their gills are never covered by gill sacs and are reabsorbed just before the animals leave the water. Other changes include the reduction in size or loss of tail fins, the closure of gill slits, thickening of the skin, the development of eyelids, and certain changes in dentition and tongue structure.
Salamanders are at their most vulnerable at metamorphosis as swimming speeds are reduced and transforming tails are encumbrances on land.
For adaptation to a water phase, prolactin is the required hormone, and for adaptation to the land phase, thyroxine. External gills do not return in subsequent aquatic phases because these are completely absorbed upon leaving the water for the first time.
Most terrestrial caecilians that lay eggs do so in burrows or moist places on land near bodies of water. The development of the young of Ichthyophis glutinosus , a species from Sri Lanka, has been much studied.
The eel-like larvae hatch out of the eggs and make their way to water. They have three pairs of external red feathery gills, a blunt head with two rudimentary eyes, a lateral line system and a short tail with fins.
They swim by undulating their body from side to side. They are mostly active at night, soon lose their gills and make sorties onto land.
Metamorphosis is gradual. By the age of about ten months they have developed a pointed head with sensory tentacles near the mouth and lost their eyes, lateral line systems and tails.
The skin thickens, embedded scales develop and the body divides into segments. By this time, the caecilian has constructed a burrow and is living on land.
In the majority of species of caecilians, the young are produced by viviparity. Typhlonectes compressicauda , a species from South America, is typical of these.
Up to nine larvae can develop in the oviduct at any one time. They are elongated and have paired sac-like gills, small eyes and specialised scraping teeth.
At first, they feed on the yolks of the eggs, but as this source of nourishment declines they begin to rasp at the ciliated epithelial cells that line the oviduct.
This stimulates the secretion of fluids rich in lipids and mucoproteins on which they feed along with scrapings from the oviduct wall. They may increase their length sixfold and be two-fifths as long as their mother before being born.
By this time they have undergone metamorphosis, lost their eyes and gills, developed a thicker skin and mouth tentacles, and reabsorbed their teeth.
A permanent set of teeth grow through soon after birth. The ringed caecilian Siphonops annulatus has developed a unique adaptation for the purposes of reproduction.
The progeny feed on a skin layer that is specially developed by the adult in a phenomenon known as maternal dermatophagy. The brood feed as a batch for about seven minutes at intervals of approximately three days which gives the skin an opportunity to regenerate.
Meanwhile, they have been observed to ingest fluid exuded from the maternal cloaca. The care of offspring among amphibians has been little studied but, in general, the larger the number of eggs in a batch, the less likely it is that any degree of parental care takes place.
Many woodland salamanders lay clutches of eggs under dead logs or stones on land. The black mountain salamander Desmognathus welteri does this, the mother brooding the eggs and guarding them from predation as the embryos feed on the yolks of their eggs.
When fully developed, they break their way out of the egg capsules and disperse as juvenile salamanders. The male then guards the site for the two or three months before the eggs hatch, using body undulations to fan the eggs and increase their supply of oxygen.
The male Colostethus subpunctatus , a tiny frog, protects the egg cluster which is hidden under a stone or log. When the eggs hatch, the male transports the tadpoles on his back, stuck there by a mucous secretion, to a temporary pool where he dips himself into the water and the tadpoles drop off.
He keeps them moist and when they are ready to hatch, he visits a pond or ditch and releases the tadpoles. The tadpoles secrete a hormone that inhibits digestion in the mother whilst they develop by consuming their very large yolk supply.
When they hatch, the male carries the tadpoles around in brood pouches on his hind legs. Its eggs are laid on the forest floor and when they hatch, the tadpoles are carried one by one on the back of an adult to a suitable water-filled crevice such as the axil of a leaf or the rosette of a bromeliad.
The female visits the nursery sites regularly and deposits unfertilised eggs in the water and these are consumed by the tadpoles.
With a few exceptions, adult amphibians are predators , feeding on virtually anything that moves that they can swallow.
The diet mostly consists of small prey that do not move too fast such as beetles, caterpillars, earthworms and spiders. The sirens Siren spp.
It projects it with the tip foremost whereas other frogs flick out the rear part first, their tongues being hinged at the front.
Food is mostly selected by sight, even in conditions of dim light. Movement of the prey triggers a feeding response. Frogs have been caught on fish hooks baited with red flannel and green frogs Rana clamitans have been found with stomachs full of elm seeds that they had seen floating past.
This response is mostly secondary because salamanders have been observed to remain stationary near odoriferous prey but only feed if it moves.
Cave-dwelling amphibians normally hunt by smell. Some salamanders seem to have learned to recognize immobile prey when it has no smell, even in complete darkness.
Amphibians usually swallow food whole but may chew it lightly first to subdue it. The base and crown of these are composed of dentine separated by an uncalcified layer and they are replaced at intervals.
Salamanders, caecilians and some frogs have one or two rows of teeth in both jaws, but some frogs Rana spp.
In many amphibians there are also vomerine teeth attached to a facial bone in the roof of the mouth. The tiger salamander Ambystoma tigrinum is typical of the frogs and salamanders that hide under cover ready to ambush unwary invertebrates.
Others amphibians, such as the Bufo spp. The struggles of the prey and further jaw movements work it inwards and the caecilian usually retreats into its burrow.
The subdued prey is gulped down whole. When they are newly hatched, frog larvae feed on the yolk of the egg. When this is exhausted some move on to feed on bacteria, algal crusts, detritus and raspings from submerged plants.
Water is drawn in through their mouths, which are usually at the bottom of their heads, and passes through branchial food traps between their mouths and their gills where fine particles are trapped in mucus and filtered out.
Others have specialised mouthparts consisting of a horny beak edged by several rows of labial teeth. They scrape and bite food of many kinds as well as stirring up the bottom sediment, filtering out larger particles with the papillae around their mouths.
Some, such as the spadefoot toads, have strong biting jaws and are carnivorous or even cannibalistic. The calls made by caecilians and salamanders are limited to occasional soft squeaks, grunts or hisses and have not been much studied.
A clicking sound sometimes produced by caecilians may be a means of orientation, as in bats, or a form of communication. Most salamanders are considered voiceless, but the California giant salamander Dicamptodon ensatus has vocal cords and can produce a rattling or barking sound.
Some species of salamander emit a quiet squeak or yelp if attacked. Frogs are much more vocal, especially during the breeding season when they use their voices to attract mates.
The presence of a particular species in an area may be more easily discerned by its characteristic call than by a fleeting glimpse of the animal itself.
In most species, the sound is produced by expelling air from the lungs over the vocal cords into an air sac or sacs in the throat or at the corner of the mouth.
This may distend like a balloon and acts as a resonator, helping to transfer the sound to the atmosphere, or the water at times when the animal is submerged.
This call is modified to a quieter courtship call on the approach of a female or to a more aggressive version if a male intruder draws near.
Calling carries the risk of attracting predators and involves the expenditure of much energy. When a frog is attacked, a distress or fright call is emitted, often resembling a scream.
Little is known of the territorial behaviour of caecilians, but some frogs and salamanders defend home ranges.
These are usually feeding, breeding or sheltering sites. Males normally exhibit such behaviour though in some species, females and even juveniles are also involved.
Although in many frog species, females are larger than males, this is not the case in most species where males are actively involved in territorial defence.
Some of these have specific adaptations such as enlarged teeth for biting or spines on the chest, arms or thumbs. In salamanders, defence of a territory involves adopting an aggressive posture and if necessary attacking the intruder.
This may involve snapping, chasing and sometimes biting, occasionally causing the loss of a tail. The behaviour of red back salamanders Plethodon cinereus has been much studied.
Much of their behaviour seemed stereotyped and did not involve any actual contact between individuals.
An aggressive posture involved raising the body off the ground and glaring at the opponent who often turned away submissively.
If the intruder persisted, a biting lunge was usually launched at either the tail region or the naso-labial grooves.
Damage to either of these areas can reduce the fitness of the rival, either because of the need to regenerate tissue or because it impairs its ability to detect food.
In frogs, male territorial behaviour is often observed at breeding locations; calling is both an announcement of ownership of part of this resource and an advertisement call to potential mates.
In general, a deeper voice represents a heavier and more powerful individual, and this may be sufficient to prevent intrusion by smaller males.
Much energy is used in the vocalization and it takes a toll on the territory holder who may be displaced by a fitter rival if he tires.
There is a tendency for males to tolerate the holders of neighbouring territories while vigorously attacking unknown intruders.
Holders of territories have a "home advantage" and usually come off better in an encounter between two similar-sized frogs.
If threats are insufficient, chest to chest tussles may take place. Fighting methods include pushing and shoving, deflating the opponent's vocal sac, seizing him by the head, jumping on his back, biting, chasing, splashing, and ducking him under the water.
Amphibians have soft bodies with thin skins, and lack claws, defensive armour, or spines. Nevertheless, they have evolved various defence mechanisms to keep themselves alive.
The first line of defence in salamanders and frogs is the mucous secretion that they produce. This keeps their skin moist and makes them slippery and difficult to grip.
The secretion is often sticky and distasteful or toxic. The rough-skinned newt Taricha granulosa from North America and other members of its genus contain the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin TTX , the most toxic non-protein substance known and almost identical to that produced by pufferfish.
Handling the newts does not cause harm, but ingestion of even the most minute amounts of the skin is deadly. In feeding trials, fish, frogs, reptiles, birds and mammals were all found to be susceptible.
In locations where both snake and salamander co-exist, the snakes have developed immunity through genetic changes and they feed on the amphibians with impunity.
These regions are presented to the attacking animal and their secretions may be foul-tasting or cause various physical or neurological symptoms.
Altogether, over toxins have been isolated from the limited number of amphibian species that have been investigated. Poisonous species often use bright colouring to warn potential predators of their toxicity.
These warning colours tend to be red or yellow combined with black, with the fire salamander Salamandra salamandra being an example.
Once a predator has sampled one of these, it is likely to remember the colouration next time it encounters a similar animal.
In some species, such as the fire-bellied toad Bombina spp. The frog Allobates zaparo is not poisonous, but mimics the appearance of other toxic species in its locality, a strategy that may deceive predators.
Many amphibians are nocturnal and hide during the day, thereby avoiding diurnal predators that hunt by sight. Other amphibians use camouflage to avoid being detected.
They have various colourings such as mottled browns, greys and olives to blend into the background. Some salamanders adopt defensive poses when faced by a potential predator such as the North American northern short-tailed shrew Blarina brevicauda.
Their bodies writhe and they raise and lash their tails which makes it difficult for the predator to avoid contact with their poison-producing granular glands.
The tail may have a constriction at its base to allow it to be easily detached. The tail is regenerated later, but the energy cost to the animal of replacing it is significant.
The blackbelly salamander Desmognathus quadramaculatus can bite an attacking common garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis two or three times its size on the head and often manages to escape.
In amphibians, there is evidence of habituation , associative learning through both classical and instrumental learning , and discrimination abilities.
In one experiment, when offered live fruit flies Drosophila virilis , salamanders chose the larger of 1 vs 2 and 2 vs 3.
Frogs can distinguish between low numbers 1 vs 2, 2 vs 3, but not 3 vs 4 and large numbers 3 vs 6, 4 vs 8, but not 4 vs 6 of prey. This is irrespective of other characteristics, i.
Dramatic declines in amphibian populations, including population crashes and mass localized extinction , have been noted since the late s from locations all over the world, and amphibian declines are thus perceived to be one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity.
In there were believed to be 4, species of amphibians that depended on water at some stage during their life cycle.
Of these, 1, However, many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood, and are a topic of ongoing discussion.
With their complex reproductive needs and permeable skins, amphibians are often considered to be ecological indicators. Any decline in amphibian numbers will affect the patterns of predation.
The loss of carnivorous species near the top of the food chain will upset the delicate ecosystem balance and may cause dramatic increases in opportunistic species.
In the Middle East, a growing appetite for eating frog legs and the consequent gathering of them for food was linked to an increase in mosquitoes.
The western terrestrial garter snake Thamnophis elegans in California is largely aquatic and depends heavily on two species of frog that are decreasing in numbers, the Yosemite toad Bufo canorus and the mountain yellow-legged frog Rana muscosa , putting the snake's future at risk.
If the snake were to become scarce, this would affect birds of prey and other predators that feed on it. These normally play an important role in controlling the growth of algae and also forage on detritus that accumulates as sediment on the bottom.
A reduction in the number of tadpoles may lead to an overgrowth of algae, resulting in depletion of oxygen in the water when the algae later die and decompose.
Aquatic invertebrates and fish might then die and there would be unpredictable ecological consequences. A global strategy to stem the crisis was released in in the form of the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan.
Developed by over eighty leading experts in the field, this call to action details what would be required to curtail amphibian declines and extinctions over the following five years and how much this would cost.
The Amphibian Specialist Group of the IUCN is spearheading efforts to implement a comprehensive global strategy for amphibian conservation.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For other uses, see Amphibian disambiguation. A class of ectothermic tetrapods, which typically breed in water.
See also: List of amphibians. Main article: Evolution of tetrapods. See also: List of prehistoric amphibians.
Top: Restoration of Eusthenopteron , a fully aquatic lobe-finned fish Bottom: Restoration of Tiktaalik , an advanced tetrapodomorph fish.
See also: Sexual selection in amphibians. Main article: Decline in amphibian populations. Amphibians portal. In: Zhang, Z. Animal biodiversity: An outline of higher-level classification and survey of taxonomic richness" PDF.
Clarendon Press. Integrative and Comparative Biology. The American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved October 24, Amphibian Ecology and Conservation.
A Handbook of Techniques : 3— Archived from the original PDF on July 15, University of California Museum of Paleontology. Retrieved December 13, Bibcode : Natur.
Mesozoic Amphibians" PDF. In Heatwole, H. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. Bibcode : PNAS.. Tree of Life Web Project.
Retrieved August 31, University of Waikato: Plant and animal evolution. Retrieved September 30, Hallam, Anthony ed. Patterns of Evolution, as Illustrated by the Fossil Record.
Retrieved September 29, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. Fossils: A Study in Evolution. Frederick Muller Ltd. Biology Letters.
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. The American Naturalist. Retrieved September 16, Introduction to the Biology of Marine Life.
Version Systematic Biology. Bibcode : PLoSO Retrieved November 9, Anne then apologizes to her and accepts her for who she is, giving Polly the motivation to spit enough to break the record and pay off the debts.
Tuti then breaks the trophy, and using their cut of the trophy, Anne has it made into a statue of Polly which she appreciates.
Wild": Anne, wanting to spend time with the Plantars, decides to go on a camping trip with them. Anne finds out that it is difficult to camp, but not wanting to leave, she lies about camping tough, which then causes Soggy Joe, a survivalist, to take Anne and the Plantars to the more dangerous area.
After telling the family the story of the Mudmen, Joe gets attacked by them. They then turn to the family and start attacking them.
Anne remembers that they hate to be clean, so she throws her bath bomb, that she had in her bag, and the Mudmen are revealed to be wimpy cannibal frogs.
Anne then tells the Plantars the truth and that she didn't want to be left out, to which the Plantars happily say they will include her in more things.
At home, Anne shows them the music box, which Hop Pop says he has never seen before and goes to bed. As Hop Pop goes out to get more glue from Loggle, the kids find a secret entrance to three rooms of their ancestors, each with a deadly trap.
In the first room, belonging to a scientist ancestor, Sprig pulls a lever that releases a mutated pumpkin creature. Sprig tames it, only to betray it and kick it back in the cage.
In the second room, they find out their turnip-farming ancestor was also a great warrior. Sprig pulls another lever, activating a training simulator which Polly smashes her way through.
The final room is full of games and puzzles collected by, much to Anne's joyous surprise, a newt who was an honorary Plantar. The ceiling begins to cave and Anne solves the Tetris -like puzzle, opening their escape.
After finding the exit, the kids are proud of their ancestors, and Anne is proud to be an honorary Plantar. Having just gotten home and learning about the secret rooms, Hop Pop decides to check them out with Loggle still glued to his back and the kids going after them after hearing their screams.
Seeing that he needs to embellish the truth to sell the juice, Hop Pop makes up benefits to it. The juice becomes a great success, but it is still not enough to pay the tax.
Seeing that they're out of vegetables, Hop Pop decides to gather garbage and make juice. However, Hop Pop tells the truth and apologizes.
While he's apologizing, giant flies come and start picking off townsfolk, including the kids. Hop Pop sees that they're attracted to the garbage juice and takes the barrel to push it off a cliff.
The flies drop the kids and take the barrel away. Hop Pop then gives the town a refund and loses the stand to Toadie, but he is happy to be honest again despite losing his stand.
As Percy leaves to pursue his jester dreams, his instruments attract a couple of giant herons. He runs back to the fortress, unintentionally leading them.
While fighting the herons, Grime is impressed by Sasha's fighting skills and releases her. Sasha makes a deal with Grime to help fight the herons for her freedom.
At the safe room, she helps Grime manipulate his soldiers to fight. After winning the battle, Grime offers Sasha the position of lieutenant, which she accepts.
As Grime is informed that Bog has returned, Sasha still plans to find her friends but decides to "have a little fun with this place".
Note: This is the first episode of the series to just have the series title card at the beginning, rather than just have the usual intro.
As Hop Pop wonders how he can show Sylvia how he feels about her, he sees that a dance is happening tonight. At the dance, Hop Pop and Monroe have a dance battle, which Monroe wins.
Hop Pop shows Sylvia his feelings by freestyle dancing, which horrifies the frogs causing them to flee the dance which Toadstool declares to be over immediately.
Sylvia responds with an equally terrible dance, saying she always had a soft spot for the weird ones. They then dance together with Sprig playing his fiddle.
After the interview, Hop Pop sees Mayor Toadstool nominating himself for mayor to which he rants on how the town could be better. The town, inspired by his words, nominate Hop Pop as mayor, and he accepts.
Along with the town's vote, the candidates have to go through trials to prove their worth. Hop Pop excels at the trials, while Toadstool struggles.
Toadstool makes a deal with Hop Pop: if he forfeits the last trial, he'll give him his stand back tax free. Hop Pop is about to, but seeing that the town believes in him, he gets back up and wins by a knockout.
However, due to not extending his campaign across the valley, Hop Pop loses the election, and Toadstool becomes mayor again.
The townsfolk then give Hop Pop a new stand for giving them hope. While the others are enjoying reading, Sprig wants to have an adventure, so he takes the lens that keeps the door open and traps them inside.
After many attempts to escape, Anne thinks they can escape through the skylight, but she ends up getting stuck and surrounded by giant cicadas.
Using the archives blueprints, Sprig goes through the bathroom pipes to escape. He rescues Anne and accepts all the ways to help Anne get back home, whether it is boring or not.
Unfortunately while Anne and Sprig hug, the skylight gives way and Anne and Sprig are trapped in the archives again, this time without a single way to escape.
Croaker": Sprig is very well-liked by everyone, except for Croaker. So to make her like him, Sprig goes through her stuff and discovers a frog named Jonah.
Thinking he's Croaker's long-lost love, Sprig goes out to find him and bring him to her. Jonah then turns out to be an assassin who has been hunting Croaker for many years in order to kill her.
However, she defeats him. Seeing how much Sprig did to get her to like him, Croaker decides to try to do so. Note: There is an alternative version of the outro in this episode associated with "Snow Day", and the episode is the first to have an alternative version of the outro.
She tells the family about it, but they don't believe her. To prove she's not crazy, she goes to One-Eyed Wally, who also saw it, and asks for his help to find the Moss Man.
While on the quest, Wally saves Anne's life, and she starts to see him as a friend. After finding the Moss Man, Wally admits that he had never seen it up until that point, which frustrates Anne because she doesn't want to be like him.
Seeing that her remark hurt Wally's feelings, she apologizes. They see the Moss Man on top of a cliff and climb up to get a picture of it.
However, Wally falls and Anne saves him, missing her chance to get proof. They tell the town about it. Without proof, the town doesn't don't believe them.
Anne's okay with it because she and Wally know what they saw, and they don't care what others think of them. Anne, wanting answers about the music box, goes to the traveling festival with Sprig.
They find a stand of items that have similar designs like the music box, but the vendor is out to lunch. So as they wait, they decide to look around the bazaar.
The vendor, Valeriana, returns. Anne is about to show her the music box, but her backpack is taken by Marnie. As Anne and Sprig go after him, Valentina wonders if Anne's the one she's been looking for.
They catch Marnie and demand the backpack back, but he tells them that the only way to get it back is by winning the Cockroach Race. They're challenged by a racer called the Wrecker who is rarely seen.
They accept but lose to the Wrecker, and the bazaar closes. The Wrecker reappears where he turns out be Hop Pop, and he gives Anne's backpack back to her.
Anne apologizes for lying to him and trusts Hop Pop to find answers to the box. Later at night, Hop Pop buries the Calamity Box which he feels is too dangerous for anyone else to discover.
At the show, the judges see the acts and use a launching platform on the bad acts, such as a unicycle act done by Mayor Toadstool and Toadie.
Sprig impresses everyone with his over-the-top, moth-themed fiddle playing. Then a giant bat, thinking Sprig's a moth, comes in and catches him.
Using the judges' launching stage, Hop Pop and Polly rescue him. Hop Pop tells Polly to sing, which disorientates the bat which lets Sprig go.
After crashing the stage, Sprig asks Hop Pop why he was pushing him so hard when he wanted to have fun. Hop Pop tells him that he wanted to give him and Polly a better future.
Hop Pop realizes that he was a bit tough on Sprig and apologizes. Sprig accepts the apology, and he and his family end up winning.
The judges offer to have them go on tour and share their act, but they refuse and take the trophy with them as payment for Anne mortgaging the house earlier.
Toadstool and Toadie get revenge on the judges by activating the launching stage that they are standing on for rejecting their act and letting Sprig's act win.
When Hop Pop leaves, Tritonio turns out to be an adventurer-type instructor who has converted the daycare into a combat camp.
While Tritonio praises Sprig and Polly, he pushes Anne to train harder. Anne feels that Tritonio is picking on her and asks him why.
He tells her that he is tough on her because he believes in her potential. He gives Anne his family sword and trains her to fight.
On the last day of their stay, Tritonio has them learn an expertise plan that involves a bug train. Sprig and Polly question it, but Anne trusts Tritonio and says they should do it.
At the train, they manage to get past the train guards associated with Toad Tower and get a priceless ruby called the Tiger-Moth's Eye.
Tritonio takes it and is revealed to be a train-robber who only used the kids to get it. They escape, and Anne fights Tritonio. She defeats him, and the train guards take him away.
While Anne feels betrayed by Tritonio, she'll still give teachers a chance the day she gets home. Meanwhile Hop Pop returns from Crop Con having being attacked by killer locusts.
Toadstool is incensed and shocked at this and bets that her celebration party, an annual event the winner puts on for the town, will be a disaster.
To prove him wrong, Anne plans the party with Hop Pop as the entertainment, Polly as the bouncer, and Sprig bringing the spectacle by confessing his feelings to Ivy.
Anne becomes obsessed with proving Toadstool wrong. The party seems to go off without a hitch until the sashimi, a giant mudskipper that Stumpy caught, begins destroying the party, setting fire to the stage.
Taming it and gaining the unlikely assistance of Toadstool, Anne puts the fire out with the chocolate fountain and subdues the sashimi. Hop Pop says that they chose Anne because of how much she has grown, not because she was flawless.
Toadstool even concedes and tells her she deserves the award. When the party resumes, Ivy asks Sprig if he wants to go out with her, and he accepts.
Toadie tells Anne that "a friend" is waiting for her on the bridge outside of town. It is revealed to be Sasha, finally reuniting with Anne. However, she arrives with the entire Toad Tower army, led by Grime, who says that it is nice to finally meet Anne.
Note: This is the last episode to use the original intro and outro. The next episode uses alternate versions of those, and the next season has them replaced.
Three months ago, Anne and Sasha ditch school for the former's birthday. Just as she is about to head home, Anne is convinced by Sasha to go see Marcy about getting the music box.
In the present while continuing from "Anne of the Year," Grime and his army enter Wartwood to invite the frogs to a banquet celebrating Anne and Sasha's reunion.
After Anne gives the okay, they head to Toad Tower. While the frogs enjoy the banquet, Anne and Sasha hang out in Sasha's room.
After talking to a nervous soldier, Sprig figures out the banquet is a trap and they're prisoners causing the frogs to fight back. Sasha tells Anne that the banquet was to get Hop Pop to the fortress so he can be fed to a giant venus flytrap for inspiring rebellions in the valley.
Anne tries to rescue the frogs, but they are all captured. As Hop Pop is taken to be executed, Anne, with the help of Sprig, stands up to Sasha and defends him.
Grime proposes a duel between the girls: if Anne wins the frogs can go, but if Sasha wins Hop Pop is to die. Anne beats Sasha, but the fortress starts to explode from Wally's boomshrooms.
As everyone escapes the collapsing tower, Anne tries to save Sasha, but she lets herself fall out of guilt for how she treated her.
Grime saves her, and he and the toads escape with her unconscious body. Sprig, Hop Pop and Polly comfort Anne with a hug as she cries.
After getting back to Wartwood, the Plantars apologize that Anne lost Sasha as a friend, but Anne tells them it is okay because she considers them her family and that as long as they stay together, they'll get through anything.
Note: This is the first minute special of the series, as well as the only special in the first season of the show.
It is also the second episode to both use just the series title card in the intro and an alternate outro respectively.
Sprig and Anne want to experience exciting adventures, but Hop Pop forbids them from using his rule book, knowing that beyond the valley can be dangerous.
As a result, all their requests to stop and see sights are denied. In order to explore, Anne feigns a stomachache and sneaks out with Sprig to check out ancient forts.
They accidentally trigger a door that leads to the inside of one of them, discovering a factory. Hop Pop follows them, and when Sprig accidentally reactivates the factory's assembly line and its associated computer, it puts Hop Pop in danger.
After Anne's attempts to rescue him herself are futile, Sprig forcefully shuts down and destroys the factory by jamming Hop Pop's rule book into the disc drive.
After they escape, Hop Pop apologizes for being so strict, and to make it up to them, he buys the kids ice cream that they wanted to get earlier.
As they drive away, a robot from the destroyed factory emerges from the rubble, still alive. Note: New intro and outro sequences have been introduced in this episode.
The outro shows the Fwagon traveling on the road. Feeling guilty about it, Anne goes hunting for food while Sprig teaches her the Plantar family hunting techniques which include a funny yet hypnotic dance.
While Anne gathers food, the rest of the family gets captured by a scorpileo, a scorpion with leonine features.
With the guidance of a Sprig hallucination, Anne uses what she learned as a hunter and saves the family from the scorpileo.
The robot is still following them but keeps bumping into trees. They are then saved by Renee Frodgers, the manager of a traveling theater troupe who offers to have them join them.
Hop Pop, who happens to be a struggling actor, takes the opportunity. He then gets cast in the lead role of a new play, while Sprig tries to get in with Francis and the other cool theater kids and Anne tries to put together a puzzle due to having a traumatic experience in a play she was in.
Hop Pop later discovers that Frodgers is using the play to rob the towns they pass by, and not wanting to steal from unexpecting folks, exposes her as she robs the bank.
Frodgers tries to escape, leaving the troupe behind, only to be stopped by a sand-worm and get arrested by the local sheriff. The family then head out on their own once more with Hop Pop denying to the sheriff any knowledge of the incident.
In addition, he has been using Sasha's phone to binge-watch Suspicion Island. Percy and Braddock, the only soldiers of Grime's army who didn't abandon him, visit a town, and they accidentally reveal Grime's whereabouts to the newt soldier General Yunan.
Sasha and Grime flee where the latter deduces that the former's rigorous training is due to losing her friend back at Toad Tower which Sasha confirms but also adds is due to not wanting to lose Grime, who she considers as her only other friend.
They team up and manage to outwit Yunan by dropping her into a river. Reinvigorated, Grime decides to conquer Newtopia after he is done binge-watching Suspicion Island.
Sasha promises that she and Anne are not through. Note: "Wax Museum" serves as a tribute to Gravity Falls with the participation of the show's creator.
The family finally arrives at Newtopia, only to find that it is closed to all outsiders until the army of giant ants called barbari-ants are gone.
They then get attacked by the barbari-ants, but are rescued by a hooded figure, which is later revealed to be Anne's other human friend Marcy.
She tells the family that the only way to defeat the barbari-ants is to drive away the queen. They go with her on the mission, with Anne wanting to protect Marcy, as she had always been a bit clumsy, while Sprig is suspicious of her after their encounter with Sasha.
After convincing Anne that she can take care of herself, Marcy manages to save Sprig from the barbari-ant queen and drive her away. The family is then able to enter the city where they meet Lady Olivia who welcomes them to Newtopia.
Anne later tells Marcy about Sasha, and they both promise to find a way home, unaware that they are being watched by the King of Amphibia who apparently has a secret plot involving the girls as he states that the pieces are coming together.
Seeing that the Calamity Box is still at Wartwood, Andrias tells Anne that it might take some time for him and Marcy to find more information about it.
In the meantime, he gives them a place at Newtopia's finest hotel, called the Hemisphere Hotel, with an unlimited royal credit card.
While the rest of the family sleeps in the room, Sprig takes the card and explores the hotel. He's about to ride the indoor Ferris wheel, but he drops the card which falls into the hands of the bellhop, Bella.
Bella tries to run with it, but Sprig catches her. The card lands on top of the Ferris wheel, and they race for it. As they fight over it, they stop to look at the view and are in awe.
Bella returns the card to Sprig, apologizes, and then falls off the top. Using a cup of coffee to gain speed, Sprig gathers pillows to make a pile and save Bella.
Bella is about to be fired by the hotel manager, but Sprig stands up for her and manages to get her a raise. He returns to the room, and the rest of the family wakes up and tries to get Sprig moving.
Harringbone then offers Sprig a chance to enter the school through its young student program, which he accepts to fulfill Hop Pop's dream of seeing one of his grandkids go to college.
Even after a rough trial period, Harringbone decides to enroll Sprig immediately to which Sprig refuses and tries to leave.
However, the school is on lockdown for the night, making Sprig a prisoner. Hop Pop sees this and tries to get in to get Sprig out while Anne and Polly try to break in to get into the supposed college party.
Sprig escapes and finds Hop Pop stuck in the front gate. Harringbone arrives with the campus police and demands to know what's going on. Sprig then tells Hop Pop that he hates the college and apologizes for disappointing him.
Hop Pop tells him that he doesn't care about the college dream because he's not ready to let Sprig go yet. Harringbone still offers Sprig a spot at the college when he's ready.
Anne wants to find the perfect gift for her mother and finds it in the form of an artisan-made teapot. However, the teapot is the grand prize for the winner of a bumper-cart competition, and Anne has to face its champion Priscilla the Killa and her daughter Pearl.
Anne wins the competition because Priscilla had to use her injured tail to avoid hitting Polly. After hearing that the teapot was made by Priscilla's mother, she gives it to her, leading to Pearl giving her hand-made butterfly to Anne.
After Anne tells him about her mother, Sprig tells her that his and Polly's mother died when they were young. Sprig wonders if it is possible to miss someone you barely remember, and Anne gives him a comforting hug.
The box turns out to be a transporter to other worlds, with the three gems needing to be charged at three temples. Knowing only one temple's location, they decide to prepare for it.
Anne tells Marcy that she'll go with the Plantars and waits for Marcy to pick them up, but Marcy says it is best that she stays at Newtopia since they are getting close to their way home.
Wanting to make their last moment with each other the best, Anne suggests to the Plantars that they should go to the aquarium. However, their trip turns out to be filled with memories of their past adventures, and they get depressed over separating.
The security guard suggests that watching the live show can cheer them up, and they go there. During the show, Sprig gets chosen to feed a giant water snake, but he cries remembering it was his first adventure with Anne.
The water snake gets spooked and flees, breaking part of the stage, and Sprig falls into the water where a couple of giant stingrays plan to eat him.
The family fights off the stingrays but later gets kicked out of the aquarium. Anne and the Plantars say their last goodbyes, and the Plantars head back to Wartwood.
Seeing that Anne really misses her frog family, Marcy suggests that she should go with them to get the Calamity Box. Anne races to catch up with them, and the family is reunited again.
Andrias comes up to Marcy with a proposition. At first, she resists the video, but then watches it and likes it.
She then finds that her friends are trapped in the video and the cute animal comes out of the video as a monster to take her. Finding that it is weak against harsh criticism, Anna dislikes the video, defeats the monster, and saves her friends, but the monster eggs hatch into tiny versions of itself.
After a few stops, Hop Pop realizes that Littlepot is death personified and the next stop is at his farm. However, instead of Hop Pop, Littlepot takes his hair to cover his baldness and leaves while Hop Pop cries over the loss of his long and luxurious hair.
They find the ball in an old house that belongs to a skin-wearing monster called the Seamstress. Sprig rips her mask off, revealing her to be a glass frog who uses her skin cloth to cover herself.
Sprig and Ivy beat the monster and escape. Drew Applegate [79]. Anne can't get a signal for her phone and ponders that she might need to be close to a large antenna.
Sprig misunderstands her and retrieves a giant insect with large antennae. Categories :. Universal Conquest Wiki.
Welcome to the Wiki We are currently editing over articles, and 7, files. Welcome to Amphibiapedia , The biggest collaborative encyclopedia for Amphibia!
The Amphibia Wiki , a fandom dedicated to the animated comedy adventure series Amphibia , created by an Annie Award laureate - Matt Braly.
Fans and anyone interested in the series are welcome to contribute for all things related to Amphibia.
The show tells us the story of Anne Boonchuy , a self-centered teenager who is magically transported to the world of Amphibia, a rural marshland populated by frog-people and dangerous creatures.
The Scorpileo is a creature that inhabits forests beyond the Valley of Amphibia. Not sure where to start? Find out more about the wiki on the About page.
If you are new to wikis, check out the tutorial , and see Help:Contents. Check out Help:Starting this wiki if you're setting up the wiki.
Adding content Every wiki has two list of articles that need help called "Stubs" and "Wanted Articles".
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